The Benefits of Roadless Area Protection in the West Mountain Wildlife Management Area, the Nulhegan Basin Unit of the Silvio O

Since privately held lands are most often managed largely for timber production, the Northern Forest Alliance encourages public land managers to focus on providing a haven for native biodiversity and ensuring large unroaded and undisturbed forestlands on these public lands. We believe that large, undisturbed, old-growth and roadless areas are an underrepresented structure in the Northern Forest and would like to see the greatest effort taken to encourage their future representations in the landscape. In Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine only 59,645 acres of old-growth forest scattered in 107 separate stands remains- 0.22% of the forested area [mb1] [3]. Given this lack of old-growth and unfragmented forest lands in the Northern Forest, we believe it is important that public lands are managed to allow for old-growth forests to develop and encourage forest interior habitats. While early-successional forest do provide important habitat for some species, we feel that this forest type is amply distributed throughout the region and given the continuation of forestry on most of the landscape we believe that it will continue to be well-represented.

The Northern Forest Alliance has conducted a review of scientific analysis of the impacts of roadless areas on the landscape. We believe that these studies show why roadless areas are not only an important part of the landscape, but also crucial to the success of the established goal of protecting biodiversity[4], wildlife habitat and improving watershed integrity.

Within the West Mountain Wildlife Management Area there are approximately 69 miles of road[5] and road density of 1.99 miles of road per square mile of land. In the Nulhegan Basin Unit of the Silvio O. Conte National Wildlife Refuge there are approximately 57 miles of roads and a road density of 1.4 miles of road per square mile of land.[6] This is far too much. The Northern Forest Alliance encourages lowering the road density by closing down roads that are not used for access to camps and Essex Timber Company timber operations.

Roads have a wide range of profound impacts on forest ecosystems. These include direct and indirect effects on individual plant and animal species, as well as broad changes in ecosystem structure and function. Though much remains to be investigated about the nature and scope of these impacts, a large body of scientific literature evaluates their severity, extent and timescale. This annotated bibliography provides an overview of primary research, almost all from peer-reviewed journals, documenting the adverse impacts of roads on North American forest ecosystems. The research review focuses on effects that extend beyond the immediate road and its edges. Such impacts compromise the diversity and health of entire landscapes and their species as well as that of the road and the environs themselves.

The studies mentioned below are just a few of many that demonstrate the impacts of roads on biodiversity legacy, wildlife habitat, forest health and watershed integrity. Many of the studies and summaries have been taken from End of the Road- The Adverse Ecological Impacts of Roads and Logging: A Compilation of Independently Reviewed Research.[7]

We do not recommend any road closures to existing camp lots, to any roads that lead to Essex Timber Company lands or that impact any other activity specifically mentioned in any of the conservation easements. Roadless areas should be open to a variety of pedestrian and backcountry recreation opportunities including hunting, fishing, trapping and hiking.

IMPACTS OF ROADS, FOREST FRAGMENTATION AND LOGGING ON BIODIVERSITY

One of the primary goals of the West Mountain WMA is to “conserve and protect biological diversity, wildlife habitat, natural communities and native flora and fauna… and the ecological processes that sustain these natural resource values…[8]” The US Fish and Wildlife Service also specifically states protection of native flora and fauna as primary objectives of their lands.[9]

Scientific studies have shown that roads, forest fragmentation and logging have shown to have negative impacts on native biodiversity by:

1) Acting as barriers to dispersal: By acting as barriers to dispersal, roads fragment populations of many small mammals, amphibians and reptiles by creating barriers to dispersal. These barriers end up limiting the gene pool and thus hurting biodiversity.

2) Direct mortality through roadkill: Animal life that uses roads to travel on,

3) Invasion by non-native species: Roads, soil disturbance and reduced forest cover facilitate invasion by exotic (non-native) species.

4) Displacement of wildlife: Sensitive wildlife species are displaced by roads. They move or modify their home range as road density increases and avoid roads during daily movement activities.

5) Reduced nesting success: The reproductive success of interior bird species decreases in areas fragmented and/or disturbed due to logging or roads. Some species are sensitive to disturbance; others suffer from increases rates of nest parasitism and nest predation.

6) Loss of habitat: Wildlife species associated with forest interior habitat or old-growth are adversely affected by habitat degradation and by forest fragmentation due to logging or roads.

7) Reduced access to vital habitats: Roads reduce access to vital habitats to a variety of wildlife species.

8) Disruption of processes that maintain regional populations. Based on metapopulation theory, regional populations may persist in the face of local extinctions because the movement of individual animals among populations: a) supplement declining populations, b) maintain gene exchange, c) re-colonize habitats after local population extinctions. By disrupting animal movements among populations, roads undermine these processes that are vital for the long-term viability of regional wildlife populations.[10]

In order to truly protect the biodiversity of the Nulhegan and Victory Basin Wildland and other Wildlands throughout the Northern Forest, this report recommends:

· Existing roadless areas (see map 2, Roadless Areas in the Northern Forest) should be protected and public land managers should ensure work to expand roadless corridors as much as possible. This would facilitate successful ecological restoration.

· The draft management plan proposal for the West Mountain WMA should include road closures (see map 3, Proposed Ecological Reserve in the West Mountain WMA) that will protect and expand the roadless core surrounding West Mountain.

· The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service should also study potential road closures to expand roadless area protection in the Nulhegan Basin Unit of the Conte NWR.

· The Vermont Departments of Fish and Wildlife and Forest, Parks and Recreation should also inventory their existing roadless area networks on public lands and establish plans to ensure their protection and their expansion.

Impacts of Roads, Forest Fragmentation and Logging on Mammals

(While the wolf and the American marten are not currently believed to present in the Nulhegan and Victory Basin Vermont, efforts to help restore viable breeding populations of the wolf to the Northern Forest are underway. For this reason, we are including information collected on the impacts of roads on the wolf and we hope it is used as a guideline for future management principles related to its restoration to Vermont.)

Key Finding: Roads were associated with a diversity of negative effects on biotic integrity of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Source: Trombulak, S. C. and C. A. Frissell. 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology. 14: 18-30.

A review of the scientific literature reveals seven general effects of roads of all kinds on the ecosystem including: 1) Road construction resulted in the death or injury of roadside plants or slow-moving animals, compacted soils, and affected water bodies at road crossings. 2) Roadkill affected the demography of numerous species. 3) Animal behavior changed due to roads, with avoidance of roads, modification of movement patterns or home ranges, changes in reproductive success, escape behavior, or physiological state. 4) Roads increased access by humans, and therefore increased poaching pressure, fishing, and passive harassment of animals.

Key Finding: Roads were a barrier to movement by the eastern chipmunk and the white-footed mouse.

Source: Oxley, D. J., M. B. Fenton and G. R. Carmody. 1974. The effects of roads on populations of small mammals. Journal of Applied Ecology 11: 51-59.

Trapping and observation were used to study small mammal population movements along roads in southeastern Ontario and in Quebec. Four types of roads were included - county gravel roads, county paved roads, two-lane highways, and four-lane highways. All sites except one were oak-maple mixed forest; the exception was primarily coniferous forest. A total of 589 individuals were trapped.

Out of a total of 651 recaptures, 98% were white-footed mice (Peromyscus maniculatus) and eastern chipmunks (Tamias striatus); therefore, analysis focused on them. Only eight of 254 trapped white-footed mice and six of 179 trapped eastern chipmunks crossed roads; none crossed highways involving more than 30 m of clearance.

Road clearance was determined to be the most important factor for crossing by forest mammals. Road surface (gravel vs. paved) was not a significant factor. Traffic was not necessarily an inhibiting factor - one of the divided highways had very low traffic volume (four vehicles per hour), but experienced very little crossing. Wider roads were crossed almost exclusively by medium-sized mammals, such as skunks and porcupines, rather than by small mammals.

Road mortality was highest in July, when traffic levels were highest and when the young of several species were emerging and dispersing. More than 380 mammals were found killed over 116 days, as well as 150 amphibians, 228 reptiles, and 217 birds.

The authors conclude that roads may affect the survival of populations by fragmenting gene pools and that this effect should be considered when planning roads.

Key Finding: Habitat occupied by wolves in Minnesota had a lower road density than unoccupied habitat.

Source: Mech, L. D., S. H. Fritts, G. L. Radde and W. J. Paul. 1988. Wolf distribution and road density in Minnesota. Wildlife Society Bulletin 16: 85-87.

Road density and wolf distribution were studied in northeastern Minnesota to evaluate threshold road densities for the occurrence of wolves. Wolf distribution data were obtained from authors who had a long-term knowledge of the area, from Department of Natural Resources personnel, and from surveys of 112 canid trappers.

Road density was found to be inversely correlated with current wolf populations. Road densities within the entire wolf range in Minnesota, as well as within the primary wolf range, peripheral areas, and disjunct areas, all fell below the threshold road density of 0.58 km/km2 previously determined by Thiel (1985) and Jensen et al. (1986).

Key Finding: Wolves showed a preference for areas with low road density rather than high road density when establishing packs in the northern Great Lakes region.

Source: Mladenoff, D. J., T. A. Sickley, R. G. Haight and A. P. Wydeven. 1995. A regional landscape analysis and prediction of favorable gray wolf habitat in the northern Great Lakes region. Conservation Biology 9: 279-294.

The authors analyzed recolonization by the eastern timber wolf (Canis lupus lycaon) into northern Wisconsin and upper Michigan from Minnesota. They used data from radiocollared wolves and GIS information to evaluate characteristics within new wolf pack areas. Road density and land cover complexity proved to be the most important variables in their models for predicting occurrence of wolf packs. Wolves strongly selected areas with low road density as opposed to high road density.

The authors believe that wolves moved through a wide area, including unfavorable habitat, but established successfully only in higher quality habitat, low human access being one of the characteristics of the latter. They report that upper Michigan and Minnesota, with their greater area of contiguous forest, are a source population of wolves for the state of Wisconsin, where forests are more fragmented.

Key Finding: Consolidating clearcuts and retaining large residual patches would help to maintain resident American marten.

Source: Chapin, T.G., D.J. Harrison and D.D. Katnik. 1998. Influence of Landscape Pattern on Habitat Use by American Marten in an Industrial Forest. Conservation Biology 12: 1327-1337.

The authors examined 33 resident and 32 nonresident adult marten in an industrial forest in northwestern Maine bordering Baxter State Park. By using radio collars, the authors found that the martens traveled exclusively through forest patches that were larger and closer to the forest preserve and avoided the smaller patches and those further from the forest preserve.

Key Finding: Clearcuts and roads affected 2.5 to 3.5 times more of the landscape than the surface area occupied by the actual clearcuts and roads themselves.

Source: Reed, R. A., J. Johnson-Barnard and W. L. Baker. 1996. Contribution of roads to forest fragmentation in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation Biology 10: 1098-1106.

Fragmentation due to roads was quantified in a 30,123-ha area of the Medicine Bow-Routt National Forest in southeastern Wyoming. A geographic information system was used to analyze landscape structure. Forest patch and edge-related landscape changes were measured using several indices: the number of patches, mean patch area, mean interior area, mean area of edge influence, mean patch perimeter, total perimeter, and mean patch shape.

Roads contributed to forest fragmentation more than clearcuts in the study area since they dissected large forest patches into smaller fragments. They also converted more forest interior habitat into edge habitat. The edge habitat due to roads was 1.54 to 1.98 times the edge habitat created by clearcuts. Taking these factors into account, the authors calculated that together, clearcuts and roads affected 2.5 to 3.5 times more of the landscape than the area occupied by the actual clearcuts and roads themselves

Impacts of Roads, Forest Fragmentation, and Logging on Birds

Key Finding: All three species of tanagers studied were sensitive to forest fragmentation, with a declining probability of breeding tanagers occurring at a given site as fragmentation increased.

Source: Rosenberg, K. V., J. D. Lowe and A. A. Dhondt. 1999. Effects of forest fragmentation on breeding tanagers: a continental perspective. Conservation Biology 13: 568-583.

The impact of forest fragmentation on tanagers (Piranga spp.) was evaluated by collecting data from more than 1,000 study sites throughout the United States and Canada. Data were analyzed for three species of tanagers - scarlet, western, and summer tanagers (P. olivacea, P. ludoviciana, and P. rubra). Volunteer participants established census points, which they visited during the season of bird territory establishment as well as during nesting. The presence of nest predators and brown-headed cowbirds was also recorded.

Data were used to construct models to predict the probability of a breeding tanager occurring at a study site. The probability of finding breeding tanagers decreased with increasing fragmentation for all three tanager species. Sensitivity to fragmentation varied geographically and was highest in the Midwest and Atlantic Coast regions.

Key Finding: Nesting success of forest birds decreased within 50 m of forest edges.

Key Finding: In five of six studies, nesting success of forest birds decreased as forest patch size decreased.

Source: Paton, P. W. C. 1994. The effect of edge on avian nest success: how strong is the evidence? Conservation Biology 8: 17-26.

To investigate the decline in neotropical migrant bird populations, the author reviewed research on nesting success and its relationship to habitat fragmentation and artificial edges. The author reanalyzed data from a number of studies in order to be able to compare results from research conducted under varying experimental designs. Study sites included forest as well as shrub-grassland and prairie habitat in North America and Europe, with one study from Central America.

Data from 14 studies using artificial bird nests in forests were reanalyzed. The majority (71%) demonstrated that nest success was lower near forest edges, with nest predation rates greatest at distances within 50 m of an edge. Results on effects further than 50 m from an edge were less conclusive. In addition, information on the influence of the type of edge (abrupt or feathered, for example) was inconclusive.

Of the seven studies that used natural nests, four (57%) demonstrated significantly higher nest predation rates near forest edges. Two of the other studies were located in grasslands and found no effect of edges. A third study, based on exposure days, could not be reanalyzed. Of the five studies on parasitism of natural nests, three (including forest and grassland study sites) demonstrated that cowbird parasitism increased near edges. A fourth indicated a similar trend, but results were not significant. Of the six studies investigating forest patch size and its relation to nest predation rates, five demonstrated that nest success decreased as patch size decreased.

Key Finding: Roads were associated with a diversity of negative effects on biotic integrity of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Source: Trombulak, S. C. and C. A. Frissell. 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology. 14: 18-30.

Key Finding: As forest fragmentation increased, nests of all nine bird species studied suffered higher rates of parasitism and predation.

Source: Robinson, S. K., F. R. Thompson III, T. M. Donovan, D. R. Whitehead and J. Faaborg. 1995. Regional forest fragmentation and the nesting success of migratory birds. Science 267: 1987-1990.

The impact of forest fragmentation was studied for nine bird species (eight being neotropical migrants) in the Midwest. More than 5,000 nests on nine study areas were monitored for five years. Mean percent forest cover within a 10-km radius of the center of each site was estimated from forest cover maps. As percent forest cover decreased, nest parasitism by brown-headed cowbirds increased for all species, with statistically significant increases for five of the nine species. Nest predation rates increased for all species as percent forest cover decreased, with three of nine species having significant correlations.

Key Finding: The reproductive success of ovenbirds, a forest interior species, was significantly lower in forest fragments than in continuous forest, partly due to cowbird parasitism of their nests.

Key Finding: The density of breeding male ovenbirds was lower in forest fragments than in continuous forest, with birds avoiding habitat within 100 m of the forest edge.

Source: Porneluzi, P. A. and J. Faaborg. 1999. Season-long fecundity, survival, and viability of ovenbirds in fragmented and unfragmented landscapes. Conservation Biology 13: 1151-1161.

The authors compared the breeding success of ovenbirds (Seiurus aurocapillus) in a fragmented landscape versus an unfragmented landscape. There were seven study sites: three located in large forest patches (greater than 2,000 ha) and four within continuous forest (1.8 million ha). All sites were located in oak-hickory forest in Missouri. Analysis was based on the number of territorial males at each study site. The majority were captured and color-banded. Territories were mapped throughout the breeding season. The locations of all nests were mapped, nests were monitored every three to four days, and nests were inspected for the presence of cowbird eggs or nestlings. A pair of ovenbirds was considered reproductively successful only if it was observed caring for a fledgling out of the nest.

Reproductive success over the entire breeding season was lower in the fragmented forests than in the continuous forest sites. In the fragmented landscape, 72% of nests experienced cowbird parasitism, in contrast to 4% of nests parasitized in the unfragmented landscape. Annual productivity in the fragmented landscape was 0.70 juvenile female ovenbirds per female, compared to 1.47 juvenile females per female in the unfragmented landscape.

The average density of males (number per 10 ha) was also lower in the fragmented landscape (1.61) than on sites in the unfragmented landscape (2.2). Avoidance of forest edges was observed, with territorial males occupying significantly less habitat within 100 m of an edge than habitat greater than 200 m from an edge.

Key Finding: Pairing success for Ovenbirds was lower within edge areas than within interior zones.

Key Finding: Habitat quality for Ovenbirds may be lower within 150 m of unpaved roads in extensive forested landscape.

Source: Ortega, Y.K., D.E. Capen. Effects of Forest Roads on Habitat Quality for Ovenbirds in a Forested Landscape. Auk 116: 937-946.

This study looked at the influence of roads on Ovenbird density in an extensively forested region of Vermont. Territory densities of ovenbirds were 40% lower within the forest edge (0-150 m from unpaved roads) than within the interior (150 m to 300 m from the roads). The authors simulated the distribution of Ovenbird territories and concluded that passive displacement, where birds perceive habitat interfaces as boundaries and limit their territories entirely to forest habitat, did not account for the observed density-edge pattern. Territory size was inversely related to distance from roads, providing an alternative explanation for reduced densities near edges and suggesting that habitat quality was higher away from roads. Pairing success was somewhat lower in edge areas as opposed to within the interior zones, but the it wasn’t statistically significant. The proportion of males that produced fledgelings did not differ between edge and interior areas. As such the authors conclude that habitat quality for Ovenbirds may be lower within 150 m of unpaved roads in extensive forested landscapes, affecting territory density and possibly reproductive success.

Key Finding: Nesting success of forest birds decreased within 50 m of forest edges.

Key Finding: In five of six studies, nesting success of forest birds decreased as forest patch size decreased.

Source: Paton, P. W. C. 1994. The effect of edge on avian nest success: how strong is the evidence? Conservation Biology 8: 17-26.

Key Finding: Richness of plant, bird, amphibian, and reptile communities in wetlands decreased as road density within the adjacent 2 km increased, with the full impact on biodiversity not evident for several decades.

Source: Findlay, C. S. and J. Bourdages. 2000. Response time of wetland biodiversity to road construction on adjacent lands. Conservation Biology. 14: 86-94.

The authors studied the decline in plant, bird, and herptile (amphibian and reptile) richness of wetlands due to road construction on adjacent lands within 1 to 2 km. They were particularly interested in the lagged effects of road density on biodiversity loss. Therefore, they calculated historical road densities over four decades on lands adjacent to their sample of wetlands in Ontario. Using multiple regression models, they examined how much variation in species richness was due to past and current road densities. For plants, species loss was not detectable until several decades after the original road construction. For birds and herptiles, species loss was detectable within eight years, and increasingly evident after several decades.

Key Finding: Clearcuts and roads affected 2.5 to 3.5 times more of the landscape than the surface area occupied by the actual clearcuts and roads themselves.

Source: Reed, R. A., J. Johnson-Barnard and W. L. Baker. 1996. Contribution of roads to forest fragmentation in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation Biology 10: 1098-1106.

Impacts of Roads, Forest Fragmentation and Logging on Amphibians

Key Finding: Roads impeded movement by amphibians and could result in population isolation.

Key Finding: Despite some speculation, road ruts and ditches have not been shown to provide successful amphibian breeding habitat rather than acting as ecological traps.

Key Finding: Amphibians play a key role in the forest ecosystem, affecting nutrient cycling and also serving as high-quality prey for many species.

Source: deMaynadier, P. G. and M. L. Hunter, Jr. 1995. The relationship between forest management and amphibian ecology: a review of the North American literature. Environmental Reviews 3: 230-261.

This article reviews the impact of a variety of forest management practices, including logging roads, on amphibians. Studies reported significant roadkill on busy roads. A more significant impact of roads, however, may be as barriers to dispersal. Isolated populations could suffer a loss of genetic diversity. Although the barrier effect on many small mammals has been shown, almost no studies have been performed on the effect of unpaved roads and amphibian movement. The authors report some of their own findings, however, from a drift fence study along a 5-m-wide dirt track and a 12-m-wide gravel logging road in Maine. Although the dirt track had no significant impact on amphibian movement, the wider, gravel track inhibited movement by salamander species.

Road puddles and roadside ditches have been discussed as potential new breeding habitat. Salamanders and frogs have been documented breeding in rut ponds on abandoned logging roads in Kentucky. However, deMaynadier and Hunter note that no study had been done as yet to prove the level of reproductive success in these sites compared to natural breeding pools and to confirm that these road breeding sites are not serving as ecological traps, with high mortality through higher drying rates or higher predation rates.

The authors also review the ecological importance of amphibians. They are an important part of forest food chains as high-quality prey for many predators including birds, small mammals, snakes, and other amphibians. Amphibians are also believed to play an important role in forest nutrient cycling. Salamander species, for example, are top predators within the detritus food web and regulate populations of soil microfauna. The authors therefore believe that any practice that modifies local salamander populations may affect decomposition and nutrient cycling rates.

Key Finding: Roads impeded dispersal of all six amphibian species studied.

Source: Gibbs, J. P. 1998. Amphibian movements in response to forest edges, roads, and streambeds in southern New England. Journal of Wildlife Management 62: 584-589.

Amphibian dispersal relative to roads, forest edges, and streambeds was examined on a 100-ha preserve near New Haven, Connecticut. Six species, for which more than 10 individuals were captured, were included in the analysis: spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum), marbled salamander (Ambystoma opacum), pickerel frog (Rana palustris), redback salamander (Plethodon cinereus), wood frog (Rana sylvatica), and red-spotted newt (Notophthalmus viridescens). Capture rates of each species varied. For all species, forest-road edges had lower permeability than forest-open land edges and forest-residential edges. Red-spotted newts exhibited the strongest avoidance of forest edges.

Key Finding: Frog and toad density near paved roads decreased with increasing traffic intensity.

Key Finding: Frog and toad mortality on roads increased with increasing traffic intensity.

Source: Fahrig, L., J. H. Pedlar, S. E. Pope, P. D. Taylor and J. F. Wegner. 1995. Effect of road traffic on amphibian density. Biological Conservation 73: 177-182.

Frog and toad populations were studied along two-lane paved roads in two regions of Ottawa, Canada. Traffic intensity was categorized as low, medium, or high. Dead and live frogs and toads were counted along each 1-km segment of the roads. Relative densities of the amphibians were estimated using breeding chorus intensity rankings. Choruses were identified to species and given an intensity rating of 1 (for 1 individual); 2 (distinguishable individuals); or 3 (indistinguishable individuals).

In total, 1,856 dead frogs and 591 live frogs were counted over a total road distance of 506 km. The proportion of dead frogs and toads increased with increasing traffic intensity. After correcting for effects of local habitat, date, time, and region, frog and toad density was found to decrease with increasing traffic intensity.

Key Finding: Red-backed salamanders, sensitive to forest moisture and temperature levels, were more abundant in old-growth forest and 60-year-old second-growth than in clearcuts or selectively logged forest.

Key Finding: Salamanders are a critical part of the forest food chain: they are important food sources for birds and mammals, and as predators themselves, they cycle large amounts of energy through the forest ecosystem.

Source: Pough, F. H., E. M. Smith, D. H. Rhodes and A. Collazo. 1987. The abundance of salamanders in forest stands with different histories of disturbance. Forest Ecology and Management 20: 1-9.

Four pairs of study plots were established in New York State - four in old-growth forest and four in adjacent disturbed stands, the latter of which included a seven-year-old clearcut forest, a 25-year-old clearcut planted with conifers, a forest cut selectively for firewood, and a 60-year-old second-growth forest. Two 50 x 2 m transects were established in each plot. Understory vegetation cover, leaf litter depth, and soil properties were sampled. Salamanders were counted at night, with each pair of stands being surveyed a total of five times during the study.

The authors found two species of salamanders along their transects - red-backed salamanders (Plethodon cinereus) and the terrestrial eft stage of red-spotted newts (Notophthalmus viridescens). The largest source of variation in salamander numbers, other than night-to-night differences, was stand stage. Red-backed salamanders were most abundant in second-growth forest and its adjacent old-growth control plot, and least abundant in the recent clearcut. This species is believed to be particularly susceptible to changes in microhabitat as it spends all its life on land rather than partly in water and must have suitable forest habitat through all its life stages. Depth of leaf litter was the best predictor of the frequency of above-ground activity by these salamanders.

The authors report red-spotted newts as having been previously shown to be more tolerant of heat and dry conditions than red-backed salamanders. This species spends its larval and later adult life in the water and is only on land during the eft stage. Efts were most abundant in the old-growth plot next to the conifer plantation and rarest in the plantation, but more abundant in the firewood stand than its adjacent old-growth. The authors suggest that this may be because of the abundant piles of down wood present in the firewood forest stand.

The authors also review research on salamanders in various forests of the United States and report that these amphibians' high biomass makes them an important part of the forest food chain. In places such as the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire, the biomass of salamanders is twice that of birds and equal to that of small mammals. They are important food sources for birds and mammals and themselves exploit much of the small prey, thereby contributing greatly to the forest ecosystem energy flow.

Key Finding: The abundance of amphibians was significantly lower in clearcuts, plantations, and forest edges than in mature forest interior sites.

Key Finding: Lungless salamanders, such as the red-backed salamander, are particularly vulnerable to population declines due to clearcut logging.

Source: deMaynadier, P. G. and M. L. Hunter, Jr. 1998. Effects of silvicultural edges on the distribution and abundance of amphibians in Maine. Conservation Biology 12: 340-352.

Five sites in Maine were chosen to study the effects of logging and edges on amphibian populations. Three clearcut stands (ranging from 2 to 11 years old) and two conifer plantations (5 and 25 years old) were paired with adjacent mature forest stands as controls. Transects 140 m long were established perpendicular to the forest edge and 70 m into each stand type. Drift fences and pitfall traps were used to capture the amphibians. Habitat variables were also recorded, including ground cover, vegetation characteristics, litter depth, and ambient light levels.

A total of 2,394 amphibians of 14 species were captured. This included six salamander species and eight anuran (frog and toad) species. All statistical analyses were based on a catch-per-unit effort (number of animals per 100 trap nights) to standardize sampling efforts.

The overall amphibian capture rate was significantly lower in clearcuts and plantations than in the mature forest control sites. The abundance of all six salamander species and seven out of eight anurans increased significantly on plots closer to the forest interior than to the edge. Four species were identified as being particularly sensitive to forest management: red-backed salamanders (Plethodon cinereus), spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum), blue-spotted salamanders (Ambystoma laterale), and wood frogs (Rana sylvatica). Red-backed salamanders were the most sensitive to clearcutting and forest edge effects. All four management-sensitive species occurred in higher numbers in forest interior habitat than at edges.

Both the distance that edge effects extended into the forest interior and edge contrast were analyzed. The four management-sensitive amphibian species were found to be negatively affected at distances up to 25 to 35 m from silvicultural edges. For salamanders as a group, high-contrast forest edges had a stronger negative impact on abundance than low-contrast edges.

The microhabitat variables that potentially limited populations were also identified. There was a strong positive association between species abundance and canopy cover levels, percent cover by snags, stumps, and root channels, and litter coverage and depth.

Key Finding: Adult and juvenile wood frog and spotted salamander capture rates declined along a gradient from closed-canopy forest to recently clearcut habitat.

Key Finding: Juvenile wood frogs, dispersing from breeding pools at the forest edge, preferred to migrate toward closed-canopy forest habitat and away from open habitat.

Source: deMaynadier, P. G. and M. L. Hunter, Jr. 1999. Forest canopy closure and juvenile emigration by pool-breeding amphibians in Maine. Journal of Wildlife Management 63: 441-450.

The authors examined habitat selection by natural populations of wood frogs (Rana sylvatica) and spotted salamanders (Ambystoma maculatum) in three upland, mixed-forest sites in Maine. Sampling was conducted using drift fences along transects that extended 70 m into relatively mature forest and 70 m into an adjacent clearcut. The abundance of both captured adults and migrating juveniles significantly declined across the transect from closed-canopy forest to recently clearcut areas.

The authors also released an experimental population of wood frogs just before metamorphosis into artificial dispersal pools along the forest edge of a 75-m-wide power line right-of-way. Dispersal of the frogs was evaluated using pitfall traps in the adjacent closed canopy, at the edge itself, and in an adjacent open right-of-way. Juvenile frogs showed a strong immigration preference for closed-canopy habitat rather than edge or power line habitat. Highest capture rates were in habitat with dense understory and canopy.

Source: Findlay, C. S. and J. Bourdages. 2000. Response time of wetland biodiversity to road construction on adjacent lands. Conservation Biology. 14: 86-94.

Key Finding: Roads were associated with a diversity of negative effects on biotic integrity of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Source: Trombulak, S. C. and C. A. Frissell. 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology. 14: 18-30.

Key Finding: Clearcuts and roads affected 2.5 to 3.5 times more of the landscape than the surface area occupied by the actual clearcuts and roads themselves.

Source: Reed, R. A., J. Johnson-Barnard and W. L. Baker. 1996. Contribution of roads to forest fragmentation in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation Biology 10: 1098-1106.

Impact of Roads, Forest Fragmentation and Logging on Flora and Fauna

Key Finding: Non-native plant species occurred on high-use, low-use, and abandoned forest roads, with the greatest frequency on roads with the highest level of disturbance and lowest percentage of canopy cover.

Source: Parendes, L. A. and J. A. Jones. 2000. Light availability, dispersal, and exotic plant invasion along roads and streams in the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon. Conservation Biology. 14: 64-75.

The authors surveyed exotic (non-native) plant species along road segments and streams in the western Cascades and their association with different levels of light, disturbance, and dispersal mechanisms. Three types of forest roads were studied: high-use roads, low-use roads, and abandoned roads. Five transects were placed in each of the habitat types. The presence or absence of 21 exotic species was recorded, along with light levels (as measured by percentage canopy cover). Nearly three hundred 50 x 2 m sampling units were surveyed.

All of the sample sites on high-use and low-use roads had at least one exotic species present. Roads abandoned for 20 to 40 years varied in terms of exotic species being present or absent, but had up to eight species on some sample units. Exotic species were more frequent along high-use and low-use roads than on abandoned roads. These roads also had higher light levels and a greater frequency of disturbance due to traffic and maintenance. The six most frequently occurring exotic species (occurring in more than 50% of the sample units) were clearly correlated with higher light levels and had a higher frequency on roads that had a greater use. The relationship with plant dispersal ability was relatively complex.

The authors concluded with a discussion of the role roads play in facilitating exotic invasions, by providing suitable habitat of higher light levels due to reduced canopy cover and frequent disturbances, and through transport of seeds on vehicle tires.

Key Finding: Roads were associated with a diversity of negative effects on biotic integrity of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Source: Trombulak, S. C. and C. A. Frissell. 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology. 14: 18-30.

A review of the scientific literature reveals seven general effects of roads of all kinds on the ecosystem including: 1) Road construction resulted in the death or injury of roadside plants or slow-moving animals, compacted soils, and affected water bodies at road crossings. 2) Roads disrupted the physical environment by changing soil characteristics such as density, surface runoff, and sedimentation. They altered the hydrology of slopes and stream channels, created barriers to the movement of fish and other aquatic animals, and altered channel and shoreline development. 3) Roads affected the chemical environment by contributing pollutants such as heavy metals, salts, or nutrients to roadside plant and animal communities as well as to aquatic ecosystems through runoff. 4) Roads promoted the spread of exotic species.

Key Finding: Clearcuts and roads affected 2.5 to 3.5 times more of the landscape than the surface area occupied by the actual clearcuts and roads themselves.

Source: Reed, R. A., J. Johnson-Barnard and W. L. Baker. 1996. Contribution of roads to forest fragmentation in the Rocky Mountains. Conservation Biology 10: 1098-1106.

IMPACTS OF ROADS, FOREST FRAGMENTATION AND LOGGING ON FOREST HEALTH

Insect infestation will always be one of the greatest concerns to both private and public land managers. The Spruce budworm infestation of the 1970s led to much of the clearcutting that has shaped the current Nulhegan and Victory Basin Wildland landscape.

Roads, forest fragmentation and logging have consistently shown to have negative implications on forest health including:

1. Loss of ecological complexity: Reduced habitat for insect predators due to roads and other management activities is predicted to increase the severity of pest outbreaks.

2. Insect infestations: Forest fragmentation from human activity exacerbates insect pest outbreaks.

Many researchers have concluded that the areas least vulnerable to insect infestations are those that are older and have the least forest fragmentation. In order to ensure the health of the forest throughout the Nulhegan and Victory Basin Wildland we believe that:

· Public lands should be managed to reduce the potential impacts that pests like tent caterpillars and gypsy moths by limiting forest fragmentation, protecting roadless cores and expanding roadless areas.

· Forests be allowed to mature into old-growth conditions. This will increase the diversity of pest predators.

Forest Fragmentation and Disease

Key Finding: Forest fragmentation due to cleared forest increased the duration of tent caterpillar outbreaks.

Key Finding: Forest edges were predicted to be source populations for tent caterpillars.

Source: Roland, J. 1993. Large-scale forest fragmentation increases the duration of tent caterpillar outbreak. Oecologia 93: 25-30.

The author examines historical data on the spatial extent of tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria) outbreaks from 1950 through 1984 in Ontario, Canada, and compares these to township forest resource inventory maps. The degree of forest fragmentation was based on the percentage of cleared areas, forested areas, and the extent of edges. He found that the duration of tent caterpillar outbreaks was higher with increasing forest fragmentation. Townships with continuous forest had outbreaks lasting one to two years, while townships with 2-2.5 km of edge per km2 had outbreaks lasting four to six years.

The author did not investigate the mechanisms for this pattern but, based on research reported for other lepidopteran species, speculates that edges may have acted as source populations for caterpillar larvae. This could be either because more eggs were laid along edges (sunnier and warmer) than within the forest interior or because of more rapid development of larvae at the forest edge. He also suggests that forest fragmentation may limit the dispersal of parasitoids and pathogens that are natural enemies of tent caterpillars.

Key Finding: Mortality of tent caterpillars in the forest understory due to a natural virus (NPV) decreased as forest cover decreased and edge habitat increased.

Source: Rothman, L. D. and J. Roland. 1998. Forest fragmentation and colony performance of forest tent caterpillar. Ecography 21: 383-391.

The tent caterpillar (Malacosoma disstria) is reported to occur through most of the United States and southern Canada. A nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) is the dominant natural enemy of the caterpillar. The authors introduced colonies of tent caterpillar larvae to two sites of trembling aspen/balsam poplar in Alberta, Canada. They measured larvae survival, net reproductive rates, and the relationship to forest cover. Their models showed forest cover to be the best predictor of tent caterpillar performance. As forest cover decreased, caterpillar colony performance improved, with the greatest effect during larval and prepupal/pupal stages. This relationship was due to increasing NPV-caused mortality with increasing forest cover. The authors report other studies where NPV became inactive after 10 hours of exposure to direct sunlight, confirming their hypothesis that increased area of edge habitat contributed to a greater caterpillar outbreak.

Key Finding: Trees at forest edges created by roads had 2.4 times more gypsy moth egg masses than trees in the forest interior.

Source: Bellinger, R. G., F. W. Ravlin and M. L. McManus. 1989. Forest edge effects and their influence on gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) egg mass distribution. Environmental Entomology 18: 840-843.

The authors compared numbers of gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) egg masses on forest edge trees versus interior trees in Virginia. A total of 160 trees (primarily oak species) were sampled in early May, along both sides of rural roads and fire roads. Trees designated as interior trees were 40.2 m from the edge. Edge and interior trees were of similar size and species. Edge trees had 2.4 times more gypsy moth egg masses than interior trees, and the edge side of edge trees had about 3.2 times more egg masses than the edge side of interior trees. Authors note that the edge effect still existed 40 m into the forest.

Old-Growth Forests and Disease

Key Finding: A diversity of predators is important for preventing pest outbreaks.

Key Finding: Old-growth and roadless areas, with their greater diversity of composition, structure, and predators, are predicted to be less vulnerable to pest outbreaks than forests simplified through management.

Source: Schowalter, T. D. and J. E. Means. 1989. Pests link site productivity to the landscape. pp. 248-250 in Maintaining the Long-Term Productivity of Pacific Northwest Forest Ecosystems. D. A. Perry, R. Meurisse, B. Thomas, R. Miller, J. Boyle, J. Means, C.R. Perry, R. F. Powers, eds. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

The authors discuss landscape patterns and their influence on pests. Three components are important in terms of their impact on pests - intersection by roads or other corridors, patch size, and diversity of stand age classes. They state that pest success increases with forest simplification as the diversity of habitats decreases, resulting in declines of important pest predators, such as spiders and birds. Similarly, reduced stand size and age-class diversity, planting of monocultures, and intersection by roads increases pests' likelihood of finding suitable hosts. They maintain that old-growth forests should be less vulnerable to pest outbreaks than the simplified forests created through management.

Key Finding: Old-growth forests, which have a greater diversity of insect predators, are predicted to help control pest populations.

Source: Franklin, J. F., D. A. Perry, T. D. Schowalter, M. E. Harmon, A. McKee and T. A. Spies. 1989. Importance of ecological diversity in maintaining long-term site productivity. pp. 82-97 in Maintaining the Long-Term Productivity of Pacific Northwest Forest Ecosystems. D. A. Perry, R. Meurisse, B. Thomas, R. Miller, J. Boyle, J. Means, C.R. Perry, R. F. Powers, eds. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

The authors discuss the importance of ecosystem resilience - the "ability to absorb stress or change without significant loss of function." Forest management has resulted in increased simplification of forests - structurally, genetically, on the landscape scale, and in terms of successional stages.

Stresses on forests such as pollutants, global climate change, and pests and pathogens are reviewed. The authors report studies indicating that disease and pest problems may be worse in managed stands than in natural stands, and that thinning practices contribute to diseases such as root rot. The authors also review findings that suggest that old-growth forests have a greater diversity of insect predators that may help limit pest populations. They state that damage by herbivorous insects could increase as the area of old-growth forests increasingly diminishes.

IMPACTS OF ROADS, FOREST FRAGMENTATION AND LOGGING ON WATERSHED INTEGRITY

The United States Department of Agriculture has found that roads going through wetlands often have extreme consequences for wetland biota since they disrupt wetland hydrology by[11]:

· Constraining and/or diverting surface and subsurface water flows

· Concentrating and accelerating erosive surface runoffs

· Intercepting groundwater flows and reduce groundwater discharges

· Increasing or decreasing channel gradients and runoff velocities

· Increasing sediment loading

· Reducing low flows and increasing peak flows and flood frequencies

· Accelerating soil erosion and nutrient loss

The scientific studies below have shown:

· Roads and logging degrade aquatic ecosystems by increasing levels of fine sediment deposited in streams and by altering natural streamflow patterns.

· Large amounts of sediment originating from roads reach streams and rivers, degrading habitat and impairing fish production.

· Excessive sediments can impede intergravel water flow that provides oxygen and removes waste products, both of which are necessary for successful egg development. They also can reduce or eliminate suitable habitat for macroinvertibrates, which fish use as food.

· Roads, especially culverts, may act as barriers to migrating young and adult salmonids and the macroinvertibrates they depend on.

· Roads fundamentally disrupt natural drainage patterns by diverting water and preventing water infiltration into soil.

· Roads can affect both the volume of water available as surface runoff and the efficiency by which water flows through a watershed.

The Nulhegan Basin, the Paul Stream Watershed and the upper portion of the Moose River (from Concord on up) are some of Vermont’s finest examples of clean and undeveloped watersheds. In fact, the State of Vermont has used the Nulhegan Watershed as a baseline for pristine watersheds.

We believe that in order to best protect the watersheds of the Nulhegan Basin, the Paul Stream drainage, the upper portion of the Moose River, and the larger Connecticut Headwaters region the following policies should be adopted:

· Where and when legally possible, roads on public lands in the drainage of wetlands should be removed or moved to higlands and less sensitive areas. If this is not possible, then outstanding precautions should be taken to lessen the impacts of the roads on aquatic ecosystems.

· Where and when legally possible, roads adjacent to rivers and streams should be removed or moved to dryer and less sensitive areas. If this is not possible then outstanding precautions should be taken to lessen the impacts of the roads on aquatic ecosystems.

· The Agency of Natural Resources should petition the waters within the Nulhegan and Victory Basin Wildland as Outstanding Resource Waters.

· The waters within the Nulhegan & Victory Basin Wildland should be designated a Class A1 waters.

Impacts of Roads, Forest Fragmentation and Logging on Aquatic Species

Key Finding: Roads degraded stream habitat for aquatic species, including salmonids, by accelerating erosional processes and modifying natural drainage networks.

Source: Furniss, M. J., T. D. Roelofs and C. S. Yee. 1991. Road construction and maintenance. In Influences of forest and rangeland management on salmonid fishes and their habitats. American Fisheries Society Special Publication 19: 297-323.

The authors review research documenting the impacts of roads on stream habitat. Roads accelerate soil erosion rates due to surface erosion and mass soil movement such as slumps and earthflows, debris avalanches, debris flows, and debris torrents. High rates of stream sedimentation result from this increased erosion. Soil erosion rates (m3/hectare) were 30 to 300 times higher on forests with roads than undisturbed forest. Roads also altered streamflow rates and volumes, which along with increased sedimentation, resulted in altered stream channel geometry. Acting as new flowpaths for water, roads increased the channel network over watersheds, increasing the drainage density.

Research also demonstrated that roads degraded salmonid habitat by creating migration barriers like culverts and temporary dams caused by landslides. Erosion resulted in sedimentation of streams and declines in spawning habitat when too high a proportion of fine sediment was deposited. Macroinvertebrates, the primary food source of juvenile fish, also declined when large amounts of sediment were present.

Key Finding: Roads were associated with a diversity of negative effects on biotic integrity of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Source: Trombulak, S. C. and C. A. Frissell. 2000. Review of ecological effects of roads on terrestrial and aquatic communities. Conservation Biology. 14: 18-30.

A review of the scientific literature reveals seven general effects of roads of all kinds on the ecosystem including: 1) Roads disrupted the physical environment by changing soil characteristics such as density, surface runoff, and sedimentation. They altered the hydrology of slopes and stream channels, created barriers to the movement of fish and other aquatic animals, and altered channel and shoreline development. 2) Roads affected the chemical environment by contributing pollutants such as heavy metals, salts, or nutrients to roadside plant and animal communities as well as to aquatic ecosystems through runoff. 3) Roads increased access by humans, and therefore increased poaching pressure, fishing, and passive harassment of animals.

Key Finding: Brook trout populations declined significantly after stream sedimentation levels increased.

Key Finding: Populations of stream benthic invertebrates (the major food source of brook trout) declined significantly after stream sediment levels increased.

Key Finding: Higher fine sediment levels in a stream resulted in a loss of pool habitat, fish cover, changes in stream velocity, and higher summer water temperatures.

Source: Alexander, G. R. and E. A. Hansen. 1986. Sand bed load in a brook trout stream. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 6: 9-23.

The effects of sedimentation on populations of brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and stream channel physical characteristics were investigated over a period of 15 years in Hunt Creek in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Trout populations were monitored for five years prior to sand deposition, for five years during which sand was introduced into the stream, and then five more years without adding sand.

The study area was divided into two 1-mile sections, with the upper section of the stream serving as a control throughout the study. For five years, sand was introduced daily into the treated section of the stream, increasing total sediment concentrations from approximately 20 ppm to 80 ppm to replicate concentrations reported for trout streams with severe streambank erosion. Cross sections were established at 100-ft intervals to document changes in stream channel characteristics. Brook trout were collected from spring through fall every year, as were samples of benthic invertebrates (their primary food source).

The volume of sand deposited on the streambed gradually increased over the study period. A significant decrease occurred in brook trout populations in the treated section of the stream, a decrease particularly evident four years after the initial introduction of sand. Total trout numbers dropped by 51%, a statistically significant change. Trout of all sizes and ages declined in number in the sand-treated section compared to the control section of the stream. There was no change in growth rates.

After sand introduction, populations of benthic invertebrates also dropped to less than half their pre-treatment populations. The insect orders of Ephemeroptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, Trichoptera, and Plecoptera showed the most significant declines. Fish stomach analyses revealed that the majority of these taxa were important food sources for brook trout.

Stream physical characteristics also changed with increased levels of sedimentation. The stream became wider and shallower, pools disappeared, and the stream bottom lost all fish cover after becoming uniformly covered by sand. Water temperatures in the summer increased. Deeper stream depths near the banks disappeared.

Key Finding: Adult and juvenile salmonids exposed to suspended fine sediment in streams had an increasingly negative response as concentrations and duration of exposure increased.

Source: Newcombe, C. P. and J. O. T. Jensen. 1996. Channel suspended